Once the
child’s behavior support plan is developed, the behavior
support team’s role is both to implement the plan itself
and to monitor progress toward outcomes valued by the child’s
family. The keys to successful outcomes are frequent data collection
and consistency—relative not only to both when, where, and
who implements the plan but also to how the plan is implemented
(i.e., whether or not the same intervention steps are followed).
Data collection (e.g., direct measurement and indirect measurement)
should occur to document whether the plan is implemented with
consistency and is effective in achieving the identified goals,
as well as whether or not the replacement skills are durable over
time (maintenance) and/or across settings/contexts (generalization).
Data should be both easy to collect (e.g., rating scales, check
sheets) and should be periodically reviewed by the behavior support
team to ensure communication, make any adjustments as needed,
and review progress relative to the long-term vision of the child
and his/her family.
Data
Collection
The most
traditional form of ongoing assessment or data collection is a
quantitative method that assesses progress through direct measurement
of the child’s behavioral performance. Using direct measurement,
behaviors are defined and measured during intervention, during
"skill probe" periods (attempts by the child to perform
the skill without instruction), and/or at other times when the
behavior may be expected to occur.
Defining
the Behavior
Direct measurement
of a child’s skill development requires that the team first
identify the skills or behaviors that will be measured and then
select an appropriate unit of measure. A primary rule for describing
what will be measured is to adequately define the behavior so
there is no mistake about when it occurs and when it does not.
The rule of thumb is that a behavior should be defined so that
it is clearly understood by persons outside of the child’s
support team.
Measuring
the Behavior
Once the
behavior has been identified and adequately defined, the team’s
next step is to observe the child during predetermined activities
and routines in order to note the occurrence of challenging behavior
as well as the replacement skills that are taught. Behavioral
data may be recorded in several ways. However, in each, the basic
process requires that the observer make a written note or place
a mark on a data collection sheet, then transfer the mark to a
corresponding graph or chart. Following this rationale, four general
suggestions apply when selecting which form of measurement to
use when collecting data: 1) the particular type of measurement
must be easy to use; 2) the measurement must provide meaningful
information; 3) the process of measurement should not interrupt
or detract from the instructional flow; and finally; 4) measurement
should fit within the child’s natural environment—it
should not create artificial conditions that are inconsistent
with the child’s natural activities or routines. Following
these guidelines, the team is able to use either direct measurement
or indirect measurement procedures to measure a child’s
behavior. Although both will be described individually, some teams
may elect to use direct and indirect measurement procedures together
in order to provide an even more comprehensive picture of the
child’s performance and the support plan’s outcomes.
Maintenance
Maintenance
refers to the continuation of conditions associated with the performance
of a specific behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987). In
simpler terms, maintenance refers to the continued use of a behavior
over time, especially once an intervention has been conducted
or discontinued because the child has demonstrated an ability
to successfully perform the behavior. Among the more popular strategies
used to promote maintenance are changing the frequency and/or
ratio by which reinforcement is provided, systematically removing
or fading prompts over time, and teaching self-management skills.
Generalization
Generalization
refers to the spread of the effects of reinforcement (or other
operations, such as extinction or punishment) during one stimulus
to other stimuli differing from the original along one or more
dimensions (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 1987). In less technical
terms, generalization refers to the child’s ability to transfer
the use of replacement skills to new contexts, such as a new setting/location,
a new person, or a new activity or routine. An example of generalization
would be a child who originally learns to request help from his
preschool teacher in the classroom and later requests help from
the same teacher outside on the playground.
Direct Measurement
Direct measurement
provides the most accurate representation of a child’s
behavior or skill acquisition and is the preferable approach
to use to measure change. However, the use of direct
measurement by busy families and providers is not often possible.
Indirect measurement may offer a more user-friendly approach.
Event
Recording
The number
of times a skill is observed. This is measured by counting the
number of times a behavior occurs. It is important that a specific
behavior has a clear beginning and ending point in order to ensure
accurate measurement. An example of even recording might be recording
the number of times a child leaves the table in a 20-minute snack
time. This method is also referred to as frequency recording.
Percentage
Another relatively
easy way to collect data is to determine the percentage in which
a behavior occurs. In order to do this, simply identify the number
of times a behavior occurs, divide it by the total number of chances
the child had to perform the behavior, and multiply by 100. For
example, if a child is given 10 chances to stack three blocks
and successfully stacks 3 blocks seven times, the percentage would
be 70%.
Rate
Rate entails
measuring the number of times a behavior occurs relative to a
period of time. This is calculated by measuring the number of
occurrences divided by a number of time units. For example, a
teacher using rate measurement might calculate the number of times
per minute a boy bites his hand. Although a useful tool, this
can be difficult to track when measuring high frequency behaviors.
Interval Recording
Interval
recording is similar to event recording and measuring rate but
differs in that behavior is recorded within small blocks of time
(e.g., 10-seconds) called intervals that together represent a
longer period of time (e.g., 10-minutes). Observers use a data
collection form that contains a series of intervals. Behaviors
can be scored as occurrences if they occur at least once at any
time during the interval (i.e., partial interval recording) or
if they occur for the entire duration of an observation interval
(i.e., whole interval recording). In general, partial interval
recording is most often used to measure behaviors that are likely
to be short in duration (e.g., hitting, biting), whereas whole
interval recording is most often used to measure behaviors that
are expected to occur continuously for a period of time (e.g.,
sitting in seat).
Unlike event
recording, each discrete behavior being observed is measured on
relative to distinct intervals of time. At the end of the interval
period, the observer makes a check mark in the corresponding area
to mark the occurrence of a behavior. The observation continues
to the end of the next interval and another mark is made if the
behavior recurs. Scores for interval recording are calculated
as a percentage—the number of occurrences are divided by
the number of opportunities, and then multiplied by 100.
Duration
The amount
of time behavior occurs in an observation period (e.g., the amount
of time the child sits at the table to eat). Measured by recording
the amount of time a behavior occurs. Unlike the previous measures,
duration is a measure that is useful for measuring how long a
continuous-ongoing behavior lasts. Like event recording, duration
is a direct measure of the actual behavior, not an estimate like
interval recording.
The most
precise way to observe and record duration of a behavior is to
use a stopwatch or, if this is not possible, a watch with a second
hand. As discussed previously, as with all behaviors, it is important
that the behavior being measured with duration be accurately defined
with a clear beginning and end so that the observer knows when
the record should begin and when it should end.
Latency
The elapsed
time between the instruction and the time the child initiates
the behavior (e.g., how quickly the child initiates playing with
a toy once it is presented). The way this is measured is by beginning
timing once a cue is presented and continue timing until the child
begins to correctly respond to the cue. A common example where
latency is used is in school, when a teacher might be interested
in learning how long it takes a student to begin work after she
gives a direction to begin working.
Momentary
Time Sampling
Similar to
interval recording, momentary time sampling provides an estimate
of behavior occurrence, but in this case, the behavior is only
scored at the end of a interval of time. Using this procedure,
observers simply check whether a behavior occurred precisely at
the end of each interval (e.g., at the 10th second of a 10-second
interval). Scores are calculated as percentages of the total number
of observed intervals.
In addition
to direct measurement strategies, a number of less formal and
indirect measures may be of use when attempting to monitor a child’s
performance.
Indirect Measurement
In addition
to direct measurement, a number of informal data collection strategies
exist that allow a child’s team to monitor his/her progress.
Though they typically are not as precise as direct measurement,
the following strategies are often useful in helping a child’s
team monitor outcomes. In many instances, these strategies are
easier to use and can be implemented throughout the day even by
the busiest of individuals (e.g., teachers).
Below are
some indirect ways to measure the child’s behavior
or use of the skill. These forms provide a mechanism for recording
the child’s behavior or use of a skill with less accuracy
than direct measurement. However, they are time efficient and
easy for teachers to use and provide some data that are meaningful
and interpretable.
Click
here for example (average aggression)
Click
here for example (play behavior)
Click here for example (average duration)
Click here for example (peer interaction)
Daily
Log
Although
there is a wide variety, daily logs are general estimates of the
child’s performance over a large period of time (e.g., the
morning, the entire day). Often used by teachers, daily logs may
note that whether the child had a “good day” or might
rate a child’s performance along a 5-point scale using smiley
faces.
Click
here for example (Amy’s Difficulties)
Click
here for example (Ben’s Playtime)
Incident
Record
Incident
records are descriptions of specific events, such as when a child
engages in an incident of challenging behavior (e.g., biting another
child, having a tantrum). While incident records describe the
challenging behavior, (e.g., when it occurred, how intense it
was, and what happened as a result), they do not describe anything
other than the specific event.
Permanent
Product
Permanent
products are samples of a child’s work, such as artwork,
a worksheet, or something the child creates. When collected together,
permanent products allow a support team to observe a child’s
progress toward developing particular skills such as those specified
in a curriculum.
Portfolio Assessment
Portfolios
are collections of permanent products that provide a detailed
description of a child’s progress toward achieving specific
skills. Examples of portfolios include photographs of their completed
block designs, samples of artwork, photographs of dramatic play
schemes, videotapes of play or instructional engagement, and audiotapes
of language samples.
Task
Analytic Recording
This is used
when measuring a child’s accuracy for each step of a fixed
skill sequence (e.g., brushing teeth, getting dressed, putting
toys away, completing an academic task). The measurement process
begins by constructing a task analysis or listing the individual
behaviors that constitute the entire skill sequence. Below is
such a list for washing hands.
WASHING HANDS
1. Approach sink
2. Turn on water
3. Place hands in water
4. Pump soap onto hands
5. Rub hands together
6. Rinse hands
7. Turn off water
8. Dry hands on towel
The data
collection form that is used is based on the task analysis and
includes all of the steps of the behavior and spaces for recording
the child’s performance. Scores are expressed as the percentage
of steps completed successfully.
Reviewing Progress
Once data
are collected, they should be periodically reviewed by the behavior
support team for a number of reasons: 1) to ensure consistent
communication about the child’s progress; 2) to make any
adjustments as needed (in the event that challenging behavior
returns); and 3) to review progress relative to the long-term
vision of the child and family.
When reviewing
progress, the team should review both the child’s behavior
support plan as well as the data itself. Reviewing the behavior
support plan will help reorient everyone to the team’s vision
for the child, thus making communication and interpretation of
results easier. Once that is done, the team should carefully review
the data that has been collected, looking for any particular patterns
or trends (e.g., whether the behavior is occurring more or less
on particular days or at certain times of day).
In some instances,
a child may begin to exhibit challenging behavior after an intervention
plan has been implemented for some time. In the event that challenging
behavior returns, it is important to determine whether or not
the behavior pattern is due to an extinction burst (i.e., brief
instances when a child’s behavior gets worse before it gets
better), as well as to examine events to determine if there are
any new triggers than may predict the child’s challenging
behavior. Another issue to consider when evaluating outcomes of
support plans is the degree to which the plan is implemented with
accuracy or fidelity. This is most important when extinction bursts
occur—the more consistently a support plan is implemented,
the more likely the extinction burst will resolve. On most occasions,
support plans are evaluated for accurate implementation by using
checklists that team members can use to determine which components
were implemented.
Click
here to see an example of a support plan fidelity checklist
Even with
the most consistent implementation, there are occasions when behavior
support plans require revision. The team may realize that a new
trigger may be influencing the child’s behavior, such as
a new staff person at the child’s preschool or a change
in the child’s daily schedule or routine. When such instances
occur, the child’s support team may elect to either add
components to address new triggers or to conduct a new functional
assessment and develop a revised behavior support plan.
References
Carr, E.G.,
Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J.I., Kemp, D.C., & Smith,
C.E. (1994). Communication-based interventions for problem behavior:
A user's guide for producing behavior change. Baltimore: Paul
H. Brookes.
Cooper, J.
O., Heron, T. E., & Heward, W. L. (1987). Applied Behavior
Analysis. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Hieneman,
M., Nolan, M., Presley, J., De Turo, L., Roberson, W., & Dunlap,
G. (1999). Facilitator’s guide: Positive behavioral support.
Positive Behavioral Support Project, Florida Department of Education.
O’Neill,
R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W., Sprague, J. R., Storey, K.,
& Newton, J. S. (1997). Functional assessment and program
development for problem behavior: A practical handbook. Pacific
Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
